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Unlike other cultures which employed materials such as papyrus, bamboo, wood, parchment, etc. in their writing culture; Japan, from the offset, used paper.
The introduction of paper to Japan was more or less contemporaneous with the formation of a unified Japanese state. While examples of writing on wooden tablets survive, there was no truly standard method for writing prior to this. This is something to keep in mind when considering the variety of papers used in Japan.
First of all, let us try to define paper. Paper originated in China. The eminent historian of Chinese science Pan Jixing defines paper as follows:
«Paper is a medium used for such activities as writing, printing, and wrapping. The process through which it is made can be summarized as follows: first, plant fibers are extracted through a combination of human-made tools and chemical reactions; then, they are soaked in water to obtain a pulp; the water is then drained using a sieve in order to leave the cellulose on the sieve and form a wet paper membrane. After drying, the cellulose bonds together via hydrogen bonding to yield a thin sheet. [1]» (transcription of the course)
TYPES OF PAPERS
Paper types can be classified by source material, production method, and decoration techniques.
Classification by Raw Material
Paper can be divided into four main types based on the raw material used:
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Kigami, Kisukigami (raw or natural paper) - paper without additives
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Jukushi (finished paper) - specially-treated Kigami paper for a variety of uses
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Eishi (polished paper) - a kind of jukushi in which the part where the writing goes is first rubbed with a hard object
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Uchigami (hammered paper) - another kind of jukushi; the entire sheet is hammered with a wooden mallet
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Tsugigami (connected paper) - multiple kinds of papers connected together; more details in week 2
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Mica-based paper - paper decorated with mica; more details in week 2
Classification by Production Method
Depending on the production method used, the thickness of the paper can vary. The Western tamezuki (“accumulated papermaking”) method produces thick paper while the Japanese nagashizuki (“discharged papermaking,” as translated by All Japan Handmade Washi Association’s translation) method yields thinner paper; there are also in-between variants.
The nagashizuki method requires the use of neri (a viscous liquid that acts as a dispersing agent), which will be discussed in detail in the next section. Compared to the tamezuki method, which requires time to drain the water at each use, the nagashizuki process is faster and allows to produce a larger quantity of sheets in a shorter time.
EXAMPLES OF OLD JAPANESE BOOKS
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Hakushibunshū (Kohzanshū), late 17th century. from Korean peninsula
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Eiga no taigai [Essentials of Composition], mid-to-late Muromachi period
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Tamakatsura, the end of 16th century to the beginning of 17th century
A 17th-century French book with an example of watermark
Keiroku-shū, early Edo period, an example of paper made with a screen made of Kaya
Kin’yō wakashū, early-Edo period copy, an example of shazuki
Houryakukanki, early Edo period
Kasen kingyoku shō, Tenna 3 (1683)
Houryakukanki, early Edo period
Genji monogatari keizu, early Edo period
Tongjian jishi benmo (J. Tsugan kiji honmatsu), 1257, China
Hakushi bunshū (Kohzanshū), Published in Joseon period, late 17th c.
Hekianshō, early Muromachi period copy
Fiber analysis
Plants used to make Japanese paper belong to the Dicotyledon group. The cellulose cells in a Dicotyledon plant all look alike, so if we enlarge them we can tell with reasonable accuracy what plant they are from.
Identifying the raw material of the paper allows us to tell where the book is from. For example, Chinese books made in China and Chinese-language books made in Japan not only are bound in completely different ways but also make use of different types of paper. The paper used in Chinese books is called “bamboo paper” (chikushi). Chikushi paper fibers come from the moso bamboo, a plant of the Monocotyledon group. Unlike Dicotyledons, the cells in Monocotyledons come in a variety of shapes. Because chikushi paper could not be produced in Japan, Japan-made books in Chinese were printed on kōzogami (choshi). So as far as Chinese-language books are concerned, even if the book comes without a cover or colophon (a statement at the back of a book stating the name of the publisher, the date of publication, etc.) by examining the fibers we can tell if it was made in China or in Japan.
Correctly identifying the raw material is also of crucial importance in book restoration. For best results, the same paper as the original should be used. So one should never try to identify the paper based simply on color and consistency. What may look to the eye as gampi paper, for instance, could be kōzogami treated with the “hammering” method (uchigami) or even mitsumata paper. Only by carefully analyzing the paper using modern tools can the source material be reliably identified.
So fiber analysis is equally important for book history and book conservation.
Tools used to examine paper
In order to examine Japanese paper, a magnification of 50x is enough. To examine a western paper, a magnification of 100x or higher is recommended.
Light - You can find a lot of things in the paper just by using a light.
Smartphone equipped with special lens
Pen-shaped loupe - A portable magnifyer is one of the cheapest solutions to examine paper. You can get a clear and three-dimensional view using the pen-shaped loupe.
Digital cameras equipped with a microscope - If you use a digital camera to examine paper, choose a camera with microscope feature as well as LED light adapter.
Digital microscope - A portable type of digital microscope is also useful to examine Japanese paper.
High-quality optical microscope - This equipment is for professional users. It is an expensive solution but high magnification and three dimensional views are quite useful in more advanced work.
Analysing swedish banknotes - https://www.riksbank.se/en-gb/notes-and-coins/notes/security-features/